Contrasting the Hobbesian and Lockeian Social Contracts Essay

Contrasting the Hobbesian and Lockeian Social Contracts - Essay Example John Locke’s â€Å"The Second Treatise of Government† and Thomas Hobbes’ â€Å"Leviathan† both present theories for the construction of social contracts that would enable the sanctioning of a sovereign force to protect the whole. Where Locke takes a more liberal perspective, inviting the ideal that people can function by accepting a ruling authority for the greater good, Hobbes takes a similar yet opposing stance that while a ruling authority is key in the success of protecting the human race, people cannot accept such influence without giving up certain inalienable rights including their own personal sovereignty. With that said, a closer look will be taken into the contract theories of both Hobbes and Locke to determine how their different assumptions yield two distinct forms of social contracts and illuminate which political thinker’s ideal holds more value today. To begin with, John Locke has long been thought to be one of the most archetypal the orists in all of American political thinking. His ideas are so fundamental in the political landscape that it has been understood that his beliefs backed the foundations of the American Revolution in 1776. In his essay entitled â€Å"The Second Treatise of Government: An Essay Concerning the True Original, Extent, and End of Civil Government,† Locke details his theories for a distinct form of social contract in which he states that people would be bound by a moral code to uphold a certain dignity when dealing with others. By this code, people would do no harm to others or the property of others, but this could only be regulated by a governmental force that could provide protection from the inherent fear that not everyone would abide by the moral code set forth. Moreover, it is because of this need for protection from those of wavering morality that people would come together and form a state-sanctioned force which would umbrella a safety net upon their lives. It is important to note, however, that since this governmental faction is elected in a pseudo-democratic fashion for the need of the many that faction is only in place as long as the legitimacy of freedom remains intact. Moreover, the governmental faction is there for the protection of the whole, as an impartial judge, and will not persecute anybodyfor protecting his land or family. On the other hand, Hobbes’ â€Å"Leviathan: Or, the Matter, Form and Power of a Commonwealth, Ecclesiastical and Civil† theorized that life was an anarchic mess, where people were unable to act for the good of the many and instead only focused on their own selfish needs. His moral code is similar to Locke’s only in the realm that people come together for a fundamental purpose – but that is where similarities end. Hobbes believed that people had to give up something to be part of the whole. It was regulatory without leadership, a constant realm of chaos and anarchy unless the social contract c ould be enforced which would essentially require everyone to act in the greater interests of the whole by giving up their own individualized sovereignty. Further, in Hobbes’ contract, people are inherently selfish beings. Unable to share the vested interests of others, people lived in an anarchic state that teetered between the needs of the one and the sacrifice of the many to achieve that fact. In this, Hobbes is almost the complete opposite of Locke in that people are unable to declare a sovereign ruling force without giving up their individualized sovereignty. People are unable to become part of the state without asserting that they no longer need any sort of individualism. Hobbes details that â€Å"therefore before the names of Just, and Unjust can have place, there must be some coercive Power, to compel men equally to the performance of their Covenants, by the terror of some punishment, greater than the benefit they expect† (Hobbes 97). Essentially, for the social contract to function in the ways Hobbes has detailed, people must be compelled by some

Revelation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 2

Revelation - Essay Example For instance, God makes it plain for Perpetua and her companions in a vision [where God reveals Himself to Perpetua as a feeding Shepherd] that it was God’s will that He delivers them from the persecution, but through martyrdom. This idea of God using not-so-pleasant experiences, circumstances and occurrences is also exemplified in Genesis 15:12-16. In His relationship with Abraham, God reveals that Abraham’s descendents are to be oppressed as slaves in another land [Egypt] for 430 years (Class notes, 45). In both cases [Perpetua’s and Abraham’s], there are very unfortunate circumstances that God permits, for purposes only He can understand. This is in total contrast to what some modern day televangelists tout in their ‘name-it-claim-it’ doctrine, to the effect that all Christians should have a good life, health and ample financial repository as long as they had faith. Perpetua’s martyrdom and the revelation that God gives Abraham concerning his descendants suffering in Egypt echo St. Paul’s charge that those who will live godly lives shall suffer persecution (2 Timothy 3:12). Again, the revelations in the martyrdom of Perpetua and her companions and in God’s relation with Israel in the wilderness also find a point of similarity. Contrary to the wrongful postulation of the average mind, Even as God allows Perpetua and her companions to undergo martyrdom, He is still a Shepherd to Perpetua and her companions. The intimation herein is that with God as the Shepherd, He delivered Perpetua through [and not from] the persecution (Natgeotv.com, 32nd minute and Class notes, 2). Therefore, God’s deliverance and care surpasses man’s idea of deliverance. Even as someone like Perpetua is tortured, she is given grace, divine resolve and protected, just as Jesus promises that not even a strand of His children’s hair shall be lost during persecution. The same is similar to the revelation God gives to the Israelites in the

Trends in Human Services Essay Example for Free

Trends in Human Services Essay To run an organization, the management of the labor plays a great role in reflecting on the output of the company.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In the recent years, there are challenges due to technological, economic changes, competition and market trends. An organizations needs to cater for the needs of employees and ensure friendly supervision as well as freedom to the employees. To ensure high performance , this will involve attracting, developing and retaining a qualified and motivated workforce. The top management foresees the needs of their employees and organizes for training and development sessions among others. The personal needs of the employees are taken care; they are involved in decision making and participate in organization’s activities. Developing of the employees’ potential is very critical so that there is self actualization through job sharing, job enlargement and job-enriching. An action plan is prepared so that recruiting, selecting, training and developing and rewarding of employees is recognized and done properly. Continued efforts at work between the management and staff helps to achieve organizational success locally and internationally through legal compliance and employee satisfaction.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   For high output, strategic management will aim to integrate the managerial planning and decision making and hence lead to forecasting, planning and acquisition of desired labor force. There are programs that ensure right number of individuals is available at the right place and right time, and this ensures effective running of an organization. Delays may be felt when fewer labor force is recruited while a high number would lead to labor wastage and incurred loses.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   A lengthy procedure that recruits and selects applicants ultimately identifies and selects prospective employees. While carrying out the interview, actual screening and selection of appropriate candidates require good planning, availability of resources and qualified interviewers. For fair approval, discrimination of the candidates due to gender, age or nationality should be avoided.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   A safe and healthy working environment is a requirement by virtue of legal, social and political value especially due to exposure to hazardous substances or stress in the workplace. Safety equipment as well as accident prevention programs have been put forward to ensure safer environments.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   As a result of the competitive global economy, managing labors relations have been great concern especially because the economy is service oriented. There is need to prioritize the needs of the organization and that of the employees and constructively analyzed and take them into consideration.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The quality of some services offered may have negative environmental and human health effects and this has been felt in some social groups due to poverty in such regions. The well being of many people has been improved while others have been affected by the international trade. Competition for same resources may occur however this should be constructively managed so that one group does not benefit at the expense of the other.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   A great benefit in conserving the various groups is to inform the society to explicitly consider trade-offs between different regions and people as well as the labor force because this benefits the society.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   To help the organization’s ability in service delivery, selection of the human resource especially is crucial. For example, those coming from a relatively poor region need the support of the management so as to increase their output.   Technology has ensured continued identification, monitoring and reviewing of the services specified. Use of computer rather that manual operations has improved the quality and accuracy in the service delivered. The difference in biodiversity has not affected these operations and hence technology has offset the cost of service delivery.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Over dependence on government funding or sponsorship while carrying out projects in regional areas may be frustrated as a result of extra costs in some regions of a country. Where the government sets out the priorities for investments in a certain year, the funds may not have been adequately allocated and hence may affect service delivery. Reference: Marianne w., Tricia M. (2006) Introduction To Human Services:

Legalization of Medicinal Marijuana :: pot should be legal

During the Carter, Reagan, and Bush administrations, eight people in the United States were allowed to use marijuana for medicinal purposes under the Compassionate Investigative New Drug program. However, since the Clinton administration no new applications have been accepted. Therefore, other patients who need marijuana to alleviate the nausea and loss of appetite associated with the AIDS viruses and cancer chemotherapy, as well as to treat glaucoma, multiple sclerosis, epilepsy, chronic pain, and other ailments must continue to suffer without the use of marijuana. Is this fair? What could the reasoning behind this needless suffering possibly be? I thought that one of the purposes of government was to promote the well-being of its individuals. Is that not why our country spends billions of dollars towards advancements in medicine every year? So, why aren’t there any FDA approved studies testing the actual effectiveness of marijuana in progress? If it is proved that marijuana does indeed help ease the pain and suffering of these poor people, then why not allow it to be prescribed to help them. It is illegal to consume any prescription drug not prescribed to you. Which makes all prescription drugs illegal, how is this different from marijuana? Sure it may be addicting, but so can caffeine pills. Sure it may be harmful if someone misuses it, but so can Ritalin. I just do not understand how prescribing a drug to help someone could be harmful. The least the government could do is research the subject a little more. Instead, they seem to be doing the opposite. In 1994, The Assistant Secretary for Health postponed the final meeting that would have decided whether the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services would require government-grown marijuana to be used in the first medicinal marijuana research project in over a decade. The government seems to have no problems arresting sick people for using marijuana, telling them that there has not been enough research to verify its medical benefits. However, they are doing nothing to assist in the studies. A small non-profit organization called MAPS has been working for two years to raise money, develop study protocols, and obtaining the Food and Drug Administrations approval for the study of marijuana. Only one thing holds them back. They have no legal way of obtaining marijuana, and the government will not give it to them. If a medical missionary in the Rain Forest proclaimed that she had found a new miracle drug to help ease the pain of many sufferers, you can guarantee that a government approved study would be launched almost instantaneously.

History of Retail Industry Essay

Department stores were gradually introduced which gave customers a chance to choose between brands and products at one location. From JC Penney founded in 1902, to Piggly Wiggly in 1916 who was the first to offer checkout lines and self service. In 1961, Target was founded with Wal-Mart in 1962 and Kohls right behind them in 1963. It wasn’t long and Best Buy, Kmart, TJ Maxx, Costco, and many more retail stores opened their doors to the industry of shopping. It didn’t take long for the retail industry to take off and attract consumers of all kinds with the convenience of shopping and with it ame an experience as well. From department stores to grocery stores they transformed their ways of selling to gives customers not only the products they want but the atmosphere that was appealing. With Wal-Mart opening its doors in 1962 it made the 1960s the revolution in the world of retail. Today, retail industry is booming, yes with the recession it hurt some of the smaller busine sses but for the most part they have stayed afloat. We did lose some big retail businesses in 2008 such as Linens N Things, Mervyns and Circuit City. With this being said, the retail industry needs to make stakeholders understand the role in the industry to help protect and improve their reputation as well as build the confidence in consumers. Corporate stakeholders have to be more than a moral responsibility to the company. They need to be a part of much more from how much consumers spend to supporting key policy issues and in the end will change the shareholder value. Social, Economic, and Political Setting The retail industry does a lot for the social and economic setting. Wal-Mart alone does a great deal for the communities where their stores are located. Not only do they provide jobs for around 1. 5 million people, they also have competitive pricing to help local economies. Their competitive pricing brings in more than 312 billion dollars. So not only is Wal-Mart a thriving company they believe in a family work culture as well as supporting their local communities. Many retail stores leave a big footprint in their communities and worldwide. They rally around charities and do their part to put a stamp on the map. On the other hand, most in the retail industry try to keep business and politics separate which seems to be the safest position to take. Some retail businesses like Wal-Mart and Coca Cola are open to their affiliation with the Republican Party and seems to help their image with the traditional consumers but most do not want to take a chance of offending their customer base. Domestic and International Ethics Starbucks who opened their doors in 1971 to forty-one year later they have become a global company with more than 19,000 stores in 60 different countries. They have made the Ethicsphere Institute’s World most Ethical Company List for six straight years. They introduced the Ethical Coffee sourcing program in 2001 to help farms in Central and South America improve their crops while remaining environmentally aware. They helped local nurseries plant over 200,000 seedlings to restore natural forest cover as well as decreasing the use of herbicides and chemical fertilizers with farmers. They also helped train farmers to help reduce the use of carbon by replacing more than 200,000 trees. Ecological and Natural Resources The retail industry has regulations made by the Environmental Protection Agency that they have to comply by to meet regulatory obligations as well as helping reduce environmental impacts such as waste management, product selection and construction of new facilities. Retail businesses may have state regulations to comply by as well as Federal regulations. Many in the retail industry are taking great strides to help impact the environment. There are four areas that highly impact the environment. One is the choice of raw materials for clothing has big impacts on the environment. Cotton is known for its rigorous use of water and pesticides and the so called natural dyes that rely on the harvest of millions of insects to reach the â€Å"natural†color. The second is manufacturing. Textile dyeing and finishing mills can be high producers of water pollution and carbon dioxide emissions and by improving their mills to reduce water, energy and chemical use can really reduce the footprint of their global supply chain. The third is transportation which unfortunately manufacturers and retailers are on other ends of the globe which any mode of transportation sends some sort of pollution into the environment. The last impact is consumer care which many consumers may not even be aware of how a few simple steps can help reduce environmental impacts tremendously. One is washing in cold water and air drying if possible. Dry cleaning is another risk to the environment due to the chemical that is used to clean the clothes called perchloroethylene which has been known to cause many health effects with exposure to this in high levels. So it is not just the retail businesses that can help make changes to better our environment it also falls on the shoulders of designers to use fabrics that don’t require dry cleaning and to the consumers that purchase to make choices that help the environment. Clean by Design launched their program in 2009 to help reduce the environmental impacts by using buying power of multinational corporations by improving processes in the environment to reducing emissions and waste. It is astonishing to see by 2011 that Target, Wal-Mart, Gap, Levis, H&M, Nike and Li & Fung are all participating in this program and hopefully they corporations will continue to get in board and the list will continue to grow. Social Issues In today’s lively and unstable business world of retail industry they are always faced with social issues such as customer choices, brutal competitors, complex global economy and the use of the internet. Retailers are constantly trying to find new ways to make their business more profitable and ways to get more shoppers through their doors. Retail industry has caught on to engaging with society and the consumers on a personal level. They are adapting and changing to the environment around them and constantly developing new ways to serve their customers with trust and brand loyalty. Just like Timberland Company did in 2008 by making a â€Å"nutrition label† on their shoe box to show the environmental impact it has from beginning to delivery of the shoe. The company did this in hopes of giving consumers the information they need to make environmentally smart decisions on buying. Not only did Timberland Company do this they also comprised their shoe box that is made up of 100 percent recycled post-consumer waste fiber, no chemical glues and only soy-based inks to print labels. Timberland is just one of many retail stores that take a stand on social issues. Target is another big business in the business industry that comes to mind. From opening its doors in 1988, Target has always tried to be a step above in the industry with the competitive edge logos to their reputation for low prices and offering organic foods in their superstores. They always try to maintain their mission statement which reads, â€Å"to make Target your preferred shopping destination in all channels by delivering outstanding value, continuous innovation and exceptional guest experiences by consistently fulfilling our Expect More. Pay Less.  ® brand promise†. They not only cater to the consumers they are extremely involved with schools and the communities that surround them. They are partnered with St. Jude which is a huge plus for them and provide disaster relief and are always raising funds for our country’s children. Another company that has taking great strides to make their place in this economy just as their mission statement says to â€Å"Inspire and nurture the human spirit – one person, one cup, and one neighborhood at a time. Rating of the industry’s overall social responsiveness I believe the retail industry for the most part is trying to take the right steps to make a difference in the economy and help insure the environment is first priority. Over the years we have seen so many big corporations leave footprints in the global economy as well as making the appropriate changes to better the community and environment we live in. References Retail. (2010). Retrieved from http://www. ceres. org/roadmap-assessment/sector-analyses/retail Wal-Mart. (2012, December 9). History timeline. Retrieved from http://corporate. walmart. com/our-story/heritage/history-timeline https://corporate. target. com/about/history/Target-through-the-years (2012, March). In Starbucks Ethical Coffee Sourcing and Farmer Report. Retrieved November 8, 2012, from http://assets. starbucks. com/assets/6e52b26a7602471dbff32c9e66e685e3. pdf Clean by design. (n. d. ). Retrieved from http://www. nrdc. org/international/cleanbydesign The evolution of retailing. (2009, 12). Retrieved from http://www. kpmg. com/CN/en/IssuesAndInsights/ArticlesPublications/Documents/Evolution-retailing-o-200912. pdf Ken, A. (2012, March 31). Wal-mart company.

Comparison of Associate Degree and Bsn Essay

There are three pathways to become a Registered Nurse (RN) the first is a diploma nurse which consist of one to three years training in a hospital these nurses are strongest clinically since the training is usually hospital based. The other two choices are the Associate Degree Nurse (ADN) and the Baccalaureate Degree Nurse (BSN) all of these graduates are eligible to take the NCLEX-RN licensing exam. This paper will discuss the differences in the competency levels between the ADN and BSN. The Associate Degree Nursing program provides an efficient, economical pathway to becoming a registered nurse. Graduates are competent in clinical and proficient in technical skills required to practice safely in multiple settings and to fully assume the RN role. Associate Degree Programs began in 1952 at Fairleigh Dickinson University. This type of nurse is usually educated at community colleges and completes training in twenty to twenty-four months after pre-requisites are met. The facts would suggest that ADN has less theory and more clinical training and according to the American Association of Colleges of Nursing-Fact Sheet â€Å"Creating a More Highly Qualified Nursing Workforce† is less likely to notice a critical change in patient condition. The BSN completes their four years of education at the University level training is more focused on patient outcomes and nursing theories. Receiving more theoretical training they are better prepared for management. Also multiple studies show that due to their assessing, critical thinking,communication, leadership, case management, health promotion and their ability to practice across a variety of inpatient and outpatient settings the BSN trained RN has a lower mortality rate and better survival rates for patient resuscitation. (AACN Fact Sheet 2011) At the University of Pennsylvania it was found that surgical patients in Magnet hospitals had 14% lower odds of patient death, 12% lower failure-to-rescue rates when compared with non-Magnet hospitals. This improved outcome was attributed to the higher proportion of baccalaureate prepared nurses on staff. The Journal of Nursing Scholarship published an article in January 2011, researchers found that nurses with baccalaureate education levels had an impact on lowering patient mortality and failure-to-rescue rates. (AACN, 2012) To date it is not sure why advance training improves patient safety and saves lives RNs report a transformative experience when returning for their Baccalaureate degree with changed perspectives about nursing practice and finally seeing the big picture. Post BSN RNs noticed changes in the way they practiced nursing and in knowledge and professionalism they also reported becoming better patient advocates RNs reported noticing subtle changes in their perceptions which included changes in thinking, reasoning and questioning skills. (Whats all the Fuss; http://www. nsna. org/careercenter/fuss. aspx). Having a BSN opens more employment opportunities in 2005 the Department of Veteran’s Affairs began requiring all new hires to possess at least a BSN degree. (AACN 2013). And soon many more hospitals will be requiring the BSN degree. In time we may even see the passing of the ADN. As one of the most dynamic professions nursing requires us to keep our educational knowledge current and progressive to continually meet the ever changing needs of patients to provide excellent care. In 2007 the American Association of Colleges of Nursing based on the Institute of Medicines (IOM) report, â€Å" To Err is Human: Building a Safer Health System†, found that most errors were due to system and process problems and felt that BSN and higher educated nurses were better prepared to find solutions because of the curriculum emphasis on leadership and management. (AACN, 2007) The BSN prepared RN has the educational knowledge to excel in leadership and management, wellness and community nursing. The need for higher education is required as the nurse role increasingly becomes more autonomous and as society depends more on the RN to complement the Physician shortage our nation is facing. The baccalaureate degree also leads to higher level graduate degree programs, which greatly benefits the health system. Overall in my opinion each type of nursing degree diploma, ADN or BSN contributes in its own way to the workforce environment. By bringing different aspects of nursing, they all provide quality patient care and become leaders in the workplace. Yet, ADN programs offer an affordable means to access the nursing profession and  offer the nation its largest population of RN’s. For those with adult responsibilities it gives one of the most flexible ways to earn their degree by use of LVN to ADN to BSN ladder of education. References: 1. (2011). Conceptual foundations: the bridge to professional nursing practice . (5 ed. ). Pageburst. 2. American Association of Colleges of Nursing. (n. d. ). Retrieved from http://www. aacn. nche. edu/media-relations/EdImpact. pdf Fact Sheet: The Impact of Education on Nursing Practice 3. Fulcher, R. , & Mullin, C. M. (n. d. ). Retrieved from http://www. aacc. nche. edu/Publications/Briefs/Documents/2011-02PBL_DataDrivenNurses. pdf 4. AACN. (n. d. ). Retrieved from http://www. aacn. nche. edu/publications/position/bacc-degree-prep The Baccalaureate Degree in Nursing as Minimal Preparation for Professional Practice 5. Orsolini-Hain, L. (n. d. )Retrieved from http://www. nsna. org/CareerCenter/Fuss. aspx What’s all the Fuss? Working Towards a Baccalaureate or Graduate Degree in Nursing 6. Robert, R. (n. d. ). Retrieved from http://www. aacn. nche. edu/media-relations/fact-sheets/nursing-fact-sheet 7. Rosseter, R. (n. d. ). Retrieved from http://www. aacn. nche. edu/media-relations/fact-sheets/nursing-workforce.

Social Exchange Theory Essays

Social Exchange Theory Essays Social Exchange Theory Paper Social Exchange Theory Paper Similarity is rewarding, according to Rubin (1973), because: agreement is likely to provide the opportunity for partners to engage in joint activity; we assume those with similar views to ourselves will like us, so like them in return; communication is easier if we agree on things that matter to us; if our partner agrees with us, this boosts our self esteem about our own oppinions; we are vain enough to believe that those who share our views are sensitive and praise-worthy. Similarity exists between these two theories in that they both discuss rewards and investment. They both state that relationships require significant investment on the part of both partners for it to work and thus both say that a relationship is likely to fail if one person feels as though they are giving more to the relationship than they are receiving out of it. Thibaut and Kelley, 1978, criticise both theories for failing to account for the complexity of relationships. They say that not all social interactions reflect a mutual desire for equity and fair exchange and that partners motives may clash. This can produce effects such as altruism, competition, capitulation and aggression. This is discussed in their Interdependence Theory, which considers the intersubjective harmony or conflict between two people in their values, motives and attitudes. The main difference between the two theories is that Social Exchange Theory is concerned with the exchange of rewards between the two partners and the perceived difference between what one partner gives to the other and vice versa. Social exchange theory explains what we believe about a relationship with another person as depending on out observation of the poise of, what we put into the relationship as to what we get out of it and the chance of finding something better elsewhere.  It is said that we develop a comparison level, against which we compare the give/take ratio. The level will vary between relationships, with some being more giving and others where we get more from the relationship. Thus, for example, interactions at home may be very different, both in balance and content. Traditionally, the male member of the partnership went out to work, and the female partner stayed at home, looked after the running of the house and the family. They both brought different things to the relationship, which were of equal importance, without one or the other; the relationship wouldnt have functioned as effectively.  A research example in relation to this theory was the study carried out by Rusbult (1983), he found that during the early honeymoon period of a romantic relationship, the balance of exchange was largely ignored. Only later were costs related to satisfaction with the relationship. I think it is too early to know if the ways in which I helped others tied in with Social exchange theory; it would probably have to be considered in a few weeks or months time. For example, the next time I ask my uncle for a favour, he may remember the time I helped him tidy the garage and feel more inclined to grant me the favour, than he would have otherwise. So, if this is the case, then the rewards of helping will have outweighed the costs. My helping tended to focus more on family members than to strangers or friends; however, I dont think this was a conscious decision as I would have just as easily helped anyone else who needed it. Although, when thinking about it in more detail, had I not helped them; I feel that perhaps they would have thought I was too lazy, or selfish to do so. So with them being family, I didnt want them to think of me in a negative way, so perhaps it could be said that there is an emotional obligation to help relatives more than others. Evolutionary theory views many social behaviours are echoes of actions that contributed to the survival of our prehistoric ancestors. (Burnstein and Brannigan, 2001)  Research has shown that people are much more likely to donate organs to family members than to strangers. There appears to be a stronger sense of social obligation to relatives than to others.  Nevertheless, psychologists who take an evolutionary approach to helping suggest that when, for example, one family member donates an organ to save the life of another, the donor is helping to certify the survival of the genes he or she shares with the recipient. There is considerable evidence that kin selection occurs among birds, squirrels and other animals. The more closely the animals are related, the more likely they are to risk their lives for one another.  Studies in a wide variety of cultures show the same patterns of helping among humans. (Buss, 1999) Identical twins have been found to be more willing to help one another than fraternal twins or siblings. (Segal, 1999)  The reciprocity norm is an economic model of behaviour which takes the view of do unto others as you would have them do to you. It links in with Gouldners theory of social exchange. Kunz, a psychologists experimented by sending Christmas cards to complete strangers in order to see how many of them would reply, even if they had no idea who the card was from. Kunz was trying to show that people will respond in kind, when the same behaviour is shown to them. A large majority of them replied, even though they had no idea who the card was from. Evolutionary theory could be said to tie in with the people I helped to some extent, as I tended to focus more on family members than anyone else. On the other hand though, because the ways in which I helped were more everyday situations than life changing ones, my reasons were for helping were not directly related to the ideas of evolutionary theory, it was more a case of, protecting your own. Personal and cultural factors affecting helping behaviour-  I found it easier to help at home, because I was around family- the people who I am closest to, with this being the case I wasnt worried about other people watching me or being too embarrassed in front of friends or other onlookers. My feelings could be said to tie in with the study of the murder case of Kitty Genovese which intrigued two psychologists, John Darley and Bibb Latane. They both suspected that situational variables, not personality traits of the people in that society, led to the lack of help intervention which Genovese received. Emerging from that research was the concept of the bystander effect, the idea that the presence of others inhibits helping behaviour of individuals. Piliavin and his colleagues (1981) hypothesized an arousal-cost-reward model. They argued that a decision on whether to help or not is based on the arousal of the potential helper and on a calculation of the costs and rewards (to self and to victim). If the rewards are perceived as being higher than the costs, a person is more likely to intervene. There is said to be an exchange benefit and this behaviour therefore is not entirely altruistic. I related this study to the example of me offering my seat the elderly women on the bus; there definitely was an exchange value. I felt good about myself, and gave a positive impression as to what type of person I am to onlookers and the woman was able to sit down comfortably. Also, had I not gave up my seat and had something bad happened, for example the woman falling over; I would have felt guilty for a long time after, so the rewards were definitely higher than the cost- which was me having to stand until I got off the bus. Cialdini, Kenrick and Baumann, had a theory of there being a negative state relief model in relation to helping behaviours. They suggested that when we experience a negative emotional state, we welcome something which would distract us from this and increase our feelings of well-being. This model is thought to function in non-emergencies, i.e situations like giving to charity. Observers help others in order to increase their own moods. However, I disagree with this theory. In relation to myself, I have found out that if I feel in a bad mood in the slightest then I dont feel like helping anyone, whoever they may be. Being compassionate to others, for the entire day was much more hard work than I had expected. When it came to the late evening, I was getting quite negative about the whole thing; I was in a slightly bad mood and didnt feel like speaking to anyone, let alone helping them and being compassionate. In relation to this, my behaviour could be said to be the polar opposite to that of the negative state relief model. My behaviour was different to normal as in certain cases I was making a conscious decision to try and help when in normal circumstances I may not have been so quick to offer assistance. Now having analysed the different types of helping behaviour and theories, I think in future I will be more conscious as to who I help and when I do so; as I will be thinking about others thoughts as to why they think I am helping; am I being egoistic or altruistic etc?